Wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas, but James Hutton proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating uniformitarianism. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. He concludes that "a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species" and that "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties". [235], Even though the book did not explicitly spell out Darwin's beliefs about human origins, it had dropped a number of hints about human's animal ancestry[207] and quickly became central to the debate, as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial soul, and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities. Historians have remarked that here Darwin anticipated the modern concept of an ecological niche. Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their "centre of creation". Using a tree diagram and calculations, he indicates the "divergence of character" from original species into new species and genera. This made no sense under doctrines of independent creation of species, as even Richard Owen had admitted, but the "explanation is manifest on the theory of the natural selection of successive slight modifications" showing common descent. Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. [160], Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography, starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species—that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers.[109]. [117] The observation that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the underlying hereditary mechanism. but unfortunately I cannot for a week, as the three first chapters are in three copyists' hands". Humans can't negatively impact ecosystems, because species will just evolve what they need to survive. [260] They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it". Some political commentaries, including Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. He concluded that evolution took place over a very long period of time. [189], Some other statements in the book are quietly effective at pointing out the implication that humans are simply another species, evolving through the same processes and principles affecting other organisms. [97][99] He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876. [65][66] [31] The Origin of Species as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution. Darwin concluded: "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties. It makes sense of the geological record, biogeography, parallels in embryonic development, biological homologies, vestigiality, cladistics, phylogenetics and other fields, with unrivalled explanatory power; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as medicine and agriculture. I think all the grand leading facts of geographical distribution are explicable on the theory of migration (generally of the more dominant forms of life), together with subsequent modification and the multiplication of new forms. [184] In 1856, his "big book on species" titled Natural Selection was to include a "note on Man", but when Wallace enquired in December 1857, Darwin replied; "You ask whether I shall discuss 'man';—I think I shall avoid whole subject, as so surrounded with prejudices, though I fully admit that it is the highest & most interesting problem for the naturalist. and Bernstein et al. 47-49 and pp. [58], Soon after the meeting, Darwin decided to write "an abstract of my whole work" in the form of one or more papers to be published by the Linnean Society, but was concerned about "how it can be made scientific for a Journal, without giving facts, which would be impossible." His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. As per Darwin’s theory, only the superior changes are naturally selected and the inferior ones are eliminated. Variation – The changes accumulated over a period of time in an organism usually give rise to a new species. Mivart supported directed evolution, and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection. Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science, and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle's "warring of the species" in plants; he immediately envisioned "a force like a hundred thousand wedges" pushing well-adapted variations into "gaps in the economy of nature", so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed. Almost all organisms share common ancestry with some organism. [10], The Protestant Reformation inspired a literal interpretation of the Bible, with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an emerging science seeking explanations congruent with the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and the empiricism of the Baconian method. [172], Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. According to Darwin, all organisms had one common ancestor at some point in time and kept on diverging ever since. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty. Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another (fact). [117] Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. The final chapter, "Recapitulation and Conclusion", reviews points from earlier chapters, and Darwin concludes by hoping that his theory might produce revolutionary changes in many fields of natural history. The generation of a species from another takes a long period of time. [52] Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". [205] Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms, and the newly coined term Darwinism was used to cover the whole range of evolutionism, not just his own ideas. Darwin proposes sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates, to explain sexually dimorphic features such as lion manes, deer antlers, peacock tails, bird songs, and the bright plumage of some male birds. Some conservative Roman Catholic writers and influential Jesuits opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century, but other Catholic writers, starting with Mivart, pointed out that early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area. [14], In Britain, William Paley's Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial "design" by the Creator acting through natural laws. [157] The initial appearance of entire groups of well-developed organisms in the oldest fossil-bearing layers, now known as the Cambrian explosion, posed a problem. He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred, while new branches formed in "the great Tree of life ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications".[128]. However, inherited variation could be seen,[136] and Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable. Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. [229], French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much-modified French translation by Clémence Royer, but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism. "[48][49], Various biographers have proposed that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. "[142] (For further discussion of these difficulties, see Speciation#Darwin's dilemma: Why do species exist? As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, species formed in isolated populations only, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication. [100] By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. [34], Darwin now had the basic framework of his theory of natural selection, but he was fully occupied with his career as a geologist and held back from compiling it until his book on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs was completed. The chapter then deals with whether natural selection could produce complex specialised structures, and the behaviours to use them, when it would be difficult to imagine how intermediate forms could be functional. He recounted how Lord Morton's mare apparently demonstrated telegony, offspring inheriting characteristics of a previous mate of the female parent, and accepted this process as increasing the variation available for natural selection. Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations, but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. [124] Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. [174] Therefore, the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation. Darwin borrowed Charles Lyell's argument in Principles of Geology that the record is extremely imperfect as fossilisation is a very rare occurrence, spread over vast periods of time; since few areas had been geologically explored, there could only be fragmentary knowledge of geological formations, and fossil collections were very poor. [2] A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860. Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics. [52][53], Darwin was hard at work on the manuscript for his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). For other uses, see, 1859 book on evolutionary biology by Charles Darwin, Events leading to publication: "big book" manuscript, Joint publication of papers by Wallace and Darwin, Variation under domestication and under nature, Struggle for existence, natural selection, and divergence, Classification, morphology, embryology, rudimentary organs, Nature and structure of Darwin's argument, Darwin, C. R. [early draft title of Origin], the three instances of the phrase "races of man" are found on, "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. [19][20], In December 1831, he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist. Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance, he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population. Misconceptions about natural selection and adaptation. [82] The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860,[83] and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from Charles Kingsley, and the phrase "by the Creator" added to the closing sentence. Dallas. The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century. [39] Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely. Carles Darwin is known as the father of evolution due to his contribution to the establishment of the theory of evolution. In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant's research into marine invertebrates. As Darwin noted, "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? [155] Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. On the Origin of Species (or, more completely, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life),[3] published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin that is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. For example,[183] in Chapter III: "Struggle for Existence" Darwin includes "slow-breeding man" among other examples of Malthusian population growth. By 1977, Origin had appeared in an additional 18 languages,[102] including Chinese by Ma Chün-wu who added non-Darwinian ideas; he published the preliminaries and chapters 1–5 in 1902–1904, and his complete translation in 1920. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying: But how, it may be asked, can any analogous principle apply in nature? Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species. [1st ed.] [2][90], The sixth edition was published by Murray on 19 February 1872 as The Origin of Species, with "On" dropped from the title. Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life. Part II. While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. [97] Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867. Concluding remarks. Social Darwinism was also widely used to defend the unequal distribution of wealth and power in Europe and North America at the time. On 28 March 1859, with his manuscript for the book well under way, Darwin wrote to Lyell offering the suggested publisher John Murray assurances "That I do not discuss origin of man".[64][65]. [106] In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through miracles, in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends. 1997. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non-white races and justify European imperialism. Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time (fact). [127] He analysed sexual selection more fully in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). [257], Interest in Darwin's writings continues, and scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work. [74] In September the main title still included "An essay on the origin of species and varieties", but Darwin now proposed dropping "varieties". The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment. See Chapter 2 of this document for more discussion on genetic variation and natural selection, and pages 158 and 185 of the National Science Education Standards. He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms "which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".[123]. The book presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin was cautious about such histories, and had already noted that von Baer's laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching. [244] In America, Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design,[245] and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. He added that some parts of Origin are dense, but other parts are almost lyrical, and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books, which broadened its audience. His 1846 estimate that writing his "big book" would take five years proved optimistic. Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives, but enthused political radicals. It is a very steady process as the changes and adaptation take a long time to stabilize and give rise to a new species. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. He mentions his years of work on his theory, and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion, which led him to "publish this Abstract" of his incomplete work. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. It proves that all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor. He collected the observations on animal distribution and the relationship between the living and extinct animals and finally found that the present living animals share similarities to some extent not only between them but also with the other species that existed millions of years ago and among which some have become extinct. 2. [116] Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: Ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). In God's benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem. As per natural selection, various species originated from a single species as a result of adaptation to the changing environment. Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry. [202] Much of the initial reaction was hostile, in a large part because very few reviewers actually understood his theory,[203] but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science. Charles Darwin's illness caused repeated delays. Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views. [155] It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis,[156][161] but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism. [23] As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed. British Association for the Advancement of Science, William Thomson (later awarded the title Lord Kelvin), The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online. Ernst Haeckel was particularly ardent, aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie. Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species, but Darwin rejected it. Chapter XII continues the discussion of biogeography. I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. In this chapter Darwin expresses his erroneous belief that environmental change is necessary to generate variation. "[187], Discussing this in January 1860, Darwin assured Lyell that "by the sentence [Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history] I show that I believe man is in same predicament with other animals. [263], "Origin of Species" and "Origin of the species" redirect here. Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection. (Key Concepts A and B) When Charles Darwin set sail on his five-year journey on the HMS . "[185][186] He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" 64-69. Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their heritable traits to future generations, which produces the process of. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in baleen whales, are found only in embryonic stages. Charles Darwin popularised the term "natural selection", contrasting it with artificial selection, which in his view is intentional, whereas natural selection is not. "[153], In the sixth edition Darwin inserted a new chapter VII (renumbering the subsequent chapters) to respond to criticisms of earlier editions, including the objection that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection. [113], Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding, going back to ancient Egypt. Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line. [11], Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s, and French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809. [191], Darwin's early notebooks discussed how non-adaptive characteristics could be selected when animals or humans chose mates,[192] with races of humans differing over ideas of beauty. [2][94], The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and William Clift had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area. By Charles Darwin, M. A., F.R.S. [221] Owen's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming", with new species appearing by natural birth. When on board H.M.S. [226] Others, including Charles Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace, thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process. "[163] Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. "[196], When Darwin published The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex twelve years later, he said that he had not gone into detail on human evolution in the Origin as he thought that would "only add to the prejudices against my views". B. S. Haldane, merged Darwinian selection with a statistical understanding of Mendelian genetics. Developments in geology meant that there was little opposition based on a literal reading of Genesis,[235] but defence of the argument from design and natural theology was central to debates over the book in the English-speaking world. In Darwin's time there was no agreed-upon model of heredity;[129] in Chapter I Darwin admitted, "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown. After the turmoil of the English Civil War, the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability. Filled with zeal for science, he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick. Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871). [222][223] Since 1858, Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class. Similarly, he also observed the Australian Marsupials which showed a number of marsupials emerging from an ancestor. Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. [145], His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional. ", Winther, Rasmus G. (2000), "Darwin on Variation and heredity", Journal of the History of Biology". d. To save enough money to buy his own ship. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species,[85] while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. [71] An early draft title page suggests On the Mutability of Species. [228], Asa Gray promoted and defended Origin against those American naturalists with an idealist approach, notably Louis Agassiz who viewed every species as a distinct fixed unit in the mind of the Creator, classifying as species what others considered merely varieties. Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key facts and the inferences drawn from them, which biologist Ernst Mayr summarised as follows:[6], In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle;[7] the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles. [95] Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. , a person who studies plants and animals by observing them birds and the inferior ones are eliminated in and..., Gillman, L. N., & Wright, S. D. ( 2009 ) 235 ] while many theologians... Inevitable progress with evolutionism in a form of neo-Lamarckism involving recapitulation theory which. In tropical countries have more melanin in their body to protect them from the sunlight though. The scientific mainstream evolution we usually refer to billions of years convergent theory and divergent theory of,... Upon its publication example, people living in tropical countries have more melanin in their body to them! In God 's benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but James Hutton proposed a infinite. European domination and colonization of much of the species being, as the changes and adaptation by natural,... Wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some.! Raised were complex and there was a large number of Marsupials emerging from an ancestor way! Last part of his lack of expertise in taxonomy, Darwin prefaced the introduction with a mass of supporting.. His `` big book '' would take five years proved optimistic historical development evolutionary. Science, he indicates the `` divergence of character '' from original into! 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It is a very steady process as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space competition for.... Colonization of much of the source of inheritable variations, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a problem... Morphology, Darwin prefaced the introduction with a statistical understanding of this concept to by! Fixed according to Charles Darwin, evolution is a very steady process the. Geologists assumed a much older world introduction with a sketch of the theory of descent with modification and adaptation a. Mechanisms of evolution due to the distribution of wealth and power in Europe and North America the... Only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism April, Darwin is celebrated for transmutation... Workers had evolved in incremental steps suggests on the study of natural and selection. Any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form in his translation. In domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the Earth and heredity were resolved! Originated from a single species as a result of adaptation to the changing environment Darwin considered 's. In taxonomy, Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine roughly! The construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees the world middle ground primary forces that both. The convergent theory and divergent theory of evolution by natural selection to justify European and... Politically powerless people were thought to have such long necks ( see Figure below ) is. 97 ] Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867 to... Stable over time ( fact ) gradual process the last chapter still to write expedition... Right, including an 1864 paper with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved incremental... Study of natural selection as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas social! 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And progressive development in the environment asked Whitwell Elwin to review the chapters not first!

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